Cloze Exercise

Ceasefire and Aftermath

Ceasefire

WHY did USA seek Ceasefire?

1. To push NKPA off hills would = WWI-level deaths.

2. Policy had shifted: rollback → containment (Wyoming Line) → war couldn’t be won.

3. MacArthur sacked → no more total victory aims.

4. Govt + public wanted end to casualties.

5. To recover US POWs + remove 135k enemy POWs.

6. War cost $bns – esp. due to artillery use.

7. USA’s full military capacity was tied up but threats in Europe, Indochina, Persia were growing.

8. UN/world opinion had turned: wanted peace not unification.

9. (elected Nov 1952) had promised quick end to war.

WHY did China agree to Ceasefire?

1. US had battlefield-ready nuclear weapons.

2. Eisenhower (Pres. March 1953) rumoured to be willing to use nukes if no deal by summer.

3. died (1 Mar 1953) → USSR disunited → policy shifted to ‘peaceful coexistence’ = support unreliable.

4. War = prestige ↑ for China, but delaying peace = prestige ↓.

5. Army wanted more support, but civil govt wanted to build economy → tensions inside China.

6. 400k Chinese military deaths + bad rice harvest (esp. North East).

7. UN promised to enforce ceasefire on S. Korea.

Ceasefire talks

• Talks began at (July 1951) but broke down – Communists used talks to buy time to reinforce.

The DMZ

• Talks restarted at (Oct 1951), but dragged.

• 27 Nov 1951: 4-mile De-Militarised Zone () agreed at current front line, but fighting continued.

The POWs

• Issue = ⅓ of 135k enemy POWs didn’t want repatriation = propaganda defeat for Communists.

• Communists demanded full return, accused US of mistreatment + germ warfare → UN had to disprove.

• Oct 1952: UN said no new offers; talks paused.

• Dec 1952: Red Cross suggested exchange of sick/wounded.

• Feb 1953: Gen. Clark wrote to Kim + Peng → March: Chinese reply agreed to ‘LITTLE ’ (April).

• 4 June: agreed to ‘Big Switch’ → India would handle non-returnees, but 90 days allowed for persuasion.

Syngman Rhee

• Rhee was furious: didn’t want to return to pre-war status quo: "never, never, never."

• 18 June: removed ROK troops from UN Command + freed 27k anti-Communist POWs = risked wrecking Ceasefire.

• Eventually, under US pressure, didn’t sign but agreed not to block.

• Armistice signed 27 July 1953 = Ceasefire only, no peace. War has never officially ended.

WHY did Rhee agree not to block the Ceasefire?

1. US offered in June 1953:

◦ Treaty (expand ROK army, US-funded)

◦ Long-term econ aid

◦ $200m + 5k tons food immediately

2. Rhee knew S. Korea depended on US – couldn’t survive or fight on without them ∴ HAD to agree..

Aftermath

Cold War → intensified

1. War didn’t solve USA–USSR tensions (Bruce, 2017).

2. It was a ‘ WAR’ → the way the Cold War was fought (eg Vietnam, Cuba, Afghanistan).

3. Cold War → global, not just European.

4. Fear of communism grew → US gave $3bn to help France in Indochina; West Germany rearmed.

5. World → 2 hostile blocs:

• US added Greece, Turkey, West Germany to NATO (1955)

• USSR formed Warsaw Pact (1955)

• US formed SEATO (1954, w. France, GB, NZ, Australia, Philippines, Thailand, Pakistan) to block communism.

6. → speeded up

a. NSC-68 → US military spending grew:

• Hydrogen bomb (1952)/ Tactical nukes/ ICBMs (1957)/ US had 2k nuclear warheads by 1955/ NATO nuclear bombers in Europe/ NATO bases in Turkey + Greece (joined 1952)

b. USSR = hydrogen bomb (1953), Red Army = 2.8m → 5.8m (1955) → huge conventional power.

US–China hostility → increased

1. USA:

◦ Communism now seen as global threat → affected whole US foreign policy. PRC = new main enemy.

◦ US refused to recognise PRC; held Taiwan was ‘China’ till 1971; used veto to block PRC admission to UN.

◦ Full trade embargo on China (1950–71).

◦ Strengthened anti-China alliances: ANZUS (1951)/ SEATO (1954)

◦ US bases: Japan, Philippines, Taiwan, S. Korea; rearmed Japan; helped France in Indochina; → Vietnam.

◦ US 7th sent to Taiwan Strait → military standoff.

2. China:

◦ War = PRC now a global Cold War power.

◦ PRC more aggressive vs USA.

◦ War confirmed Chinese belief that revolution was threatened by global capitalism.

◦ PRC saw US as new imperialist (like UK/Japan had been).

◦ US bases = encirclement/siege → all Asian conflicts seen as US plots.

◦ → Justified arms build-up + backing anti-US movements .

◦ PRC = defender of weak nations (claimed to have ‘saved’ N. Korea).

◦ China saw ‘peaceful coexistence’ as betrayal → PRC-USSR relations worsened.

◦ Chinese Communist Party → stronger at home (eg ', Aid Korea' campaign).

United Nations → enhanced

1. UN showed it could act collectively to defend peace.

2. USSR returned to UN but used veto often → UN General Assembly passed to be able to overrule Security Council.

3. Trygve Lie (UN Sec-Gen) resigned (1953) – USSR refused to work w. him; said he favoured US.

4. Debate: UN = peacekeeper or US tool for containment? As membership grew, US influence fell.

North Korea → destroyed

1. Total devastation: almost all cities bombed, >1m killed/missing, 1.5m wounded.

2. 2. USSR + China cancelled North Korea’s debts + gave aid – but much less than US aid to South Korea.

3. Communist countries sent aid in kind:

◦ Albania: asphalt/ Czechoslovakia: buses + engines/ Hungary: tool factory/ E. Germany: phones + engines/ Poland: Pyongyang rail factory/ Bulgaria: wooden tools factory/ Romania: Pyongyang hospital/ USSR: engines, freight, hospital support

South Korea → developed

1. Massive loss of population (1.2 m killed/missing; 430k wounded)

2. UN Command remained to protect → US military bases → an economic boost.

3. After the ‘April Revolution’ (1960) displaced Rhee’ corrupt government → an ‘economic miracle’.

4. NB: mandatory military conscription/ defectors from North Korea.

Ceasefire

WHY did USA seek Ceasefire?

1. To push NKPA off hills would = WWI-level deaths.

2. Policy had shifted: rollback → containment (Wyoming Line) → war couldn’t be won.

3. MacArthur sacked → no more total victory aims.

4. Govt + public wanted end to casualties.

5. To recover US POWs + remove 135k enemy POWs.

6. War cost $bns – esp. due to artillery use.

7. USA’s full military capacity was tied up but threats in Europe, Indochina, Persia were growing.

8. UN/world opinion had turned: wanted peace not unification.

9. EISENHOWER (elected Nov 1952) had promised quick end to war.

WHY did China agree to Ceasefire?

1. US had battlefield-ready nuclear weapons.

2. Eisenhower (Pres. March 1953) rumoured to be willing to use nukes if no deal by summer.

3. STALIN died (1 Mar 1953) → USSR disunited → policy shifted to ‘peaceful coexistence’ = support unreliable.

4. War = prestige ↑ for China, but delaying peace = prestige ↓.

5. Army wanted more support, but civil govt wanted to build economy → tensions inside China.

6. 400k Chinese military deaths + bad rice harvest (esp. North East).

7. UN promised to enforce ceasefire on S. Korea.

Ceasefire talks

• Talks began at KAESONG (July 1951) but broke down – Communists used talks to buy time to reinforce.

The DMZ

• Talks restarted at PANMUNJOM (Oct 1951), but dragged.

• 27 Nov 1951: 4-mile De-Militarised Zone (DMZ) agreed at current front line, but fighting continued.

The POWs

• Issue = ⅓ of 135k enemy POWs didn’t want repatriation = propaganda defeat for Communists.

• Communists demanded full return, accused US of mistreatment + germ warfare → UN had to disprove.

• Oct 1952: UN said no new offers; talks paused.

• Dec 1952: Red Cross suggested exchange of sick/wounded.

• Feb 1953: Gen. Clark wrote to Kim + Peng → March: Chinese reply agreed to ‘LITTLE SWITCH’ (April).

• 4 June: agreed to ‘Big Switch’ → India would handle non-returnees, but 90 days allowed for persuasion.

Syngman Rhee

• Rhee was furious: didn’t want to return to pre-war status quo: "never, never, never."

• 18 June: removed ROK troops from UN Command + freed 27k anti-Communist POWs = risked wrecking Ceasefire.

• Eventually, under US pressure, didn’t sign but agreed not to block.

• Armistice signed 27 July 1953 = Ceasefire only, no peace. War has never officially ended.

WHY did Rhee agree not to block the Ceasefire?

1. US offered in June 1953:

◦ MUTUAL SECURITY Treaty (expand ROK army, US-funded)

◦ Long-term econ aid

◦ $200m + 5k tons food immediately

2. Rhee knew S. Korea depended on US – couldn’t survive or fight on without them ∴ HAD to agree..

Aftermath

Cold War → intensified

1. War didn’t solve USA–USSR tensions (Bruce, 2017).

2. It was a ‘PROXY WAR’ → the way the Cold War was fought (eg Vietnam, Cuba, Afghanistan).

3. Cold War → global, not just European.

4. Fear of communism grew → US gave $3bn to help France in Indochina; West Germany rearmed.

5. World → 2 hostile blocs:

• US added Greece, Turkey, West Germany to NATO (1955)

• USSR formed Warsaw Pact (1955)

• US formed SEATO (1954, w. France, GB, NZ, Australia, Philippines, Thailand, Pakistan) to block communism.

6. ARMS RACE → speeded up

a. NSC-68 → US military spending grew:

• Hydrogen bomb (1952)/ Tactical nukes/ ICBMs (1957)/ US had 2k nuclear warheads by 1955/ NATO nuclear bombers in Europe/ NATO bases in Turkey + Greece (joined 1952)

b. USSR = hydrogen bomb (1953), Red Army = 2.8m → 5.8m (1955) → huge conventional power.

US–China hostility → increased

1. USA:

◦ Communism now seen as global threat → affected whole US foreign policy. PRC = new main enemy.

◦ US refused to recognise PRC; held Taiwan was ‘China’ till 1971; used veto to block PRC admission to UN.

◦ Full trade embargo on China (1950–71).

◦ Strengthened anti-China alliances: ANZUS (1951)/ SEATO (1954)

◦ US bases: Japan, Philippines, Taiwan, S. Korea; rearmed Japan; helped France in Indochina; → Vietnam.

◦ US 7th FLEET sent to Taiwan Strait → military standoff.

2. China:

◦ War = PRC now a global Cold War power.

◦ PRC more aggressive vs USA.

◦ War confirmed Chinese belief that revolution was threatened by global capitalism.

◦ PRC saw US as new imperialist (like UK/Japan had been).

◦ US bases = encirclement/siege → all Asian conflicts seen as US plots.

◦ → Justified arms build-up + backing anti-US movements .

◦ PRC = defender of weak nations (claimed to have ‘saved’ N. Korea).

◦ China saw ‘peaceful coexistence’ as betrayal → PRC-USSR relations worsened.

◦ Chinese Communist Party → stronger at home (eg 'RESIST AMERICA, Aid Korea' campaign).

United Nations → enhanced

1. UN showed it could act collectively to defend peace.

2. USSR returned to UN but used veto often → UN General Assembly passed RESOLUTION 377 to be able to overrule Security Council.

3. Trygve Lie (UN Sec-Gen) resigned (1953) – USSR refused to work w. him; said he favoured US.

4. Debate: UN = peacekeeper or US tool for containment? As membership grew, US influence fell.

North Korea → destroyed

1. Total devastation: almost all cities bombed, >1m killed/missing, 1.5m wounded.

2. 2. USSR + China cancelled North Korea’s debts + gave aid – but much less than US aid to South Korea.

3. Communist countries sent aid in kind:

South Korea → developed

1. Massive loss of population (1.2 m killed/missing; 430k wounded)

2. UN Command remained to protect → US military bases → an economic boost.

3. After the ‘April Revolution’ (1960) displaced Rhee’ corrupt government → an ‘economic miracle’.

4. NB: mandatory military conscription/ defectors from North Korea.